The 'best known' published and supported theoretical model of expatriate adjustment is probably that of Black et al. (1991). This model focuses amongst others on: job factors, organizational factors, positional factors, non-work factors, and individual factors in relation to expatriate adjustment. Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al. (2005) conducted analyses of over 50 determinants using data from 8,474 expatriates in 66 studies. The results emphasized the complexity of adjustment and strongly supported Black et al.'s model.
However, there appears to be little information on linkages between the cultural orientation of expatriates, social categorization, ethnocentrism, social citizenship behaviours and the adjustment process of expatriates. A central factor with regard to these linkages is the proposed role that host country nationals play in the expatriate adjustment process.
In order to research this potential role of host country nationals a quantitative and qualitative study was conducted by the author of this article in SE Asia in 2008.
A significant and largely unexpected finding in this research was the 'resentment' of host country nationals towards expatriates, which was found to interact with social interaction processes. Perhaps this has received little coverage because it is somewhat a taboo topic. This particular resentment was linked to pay discrepancies, a finding consistent with that of Grainger and Nankervis (2001). In the literature, noted resentment has been linked to the imposition of western ways on host country nationals and to encroachment on host country nationals' time, personal life, good will and job expertise, as well as to host country nationals taking orders from outsiders (being subservient in their own country). Because participants actually suggested that pay was a big motivator in the decision to accept overseas assignments, it seems difficult to remove this variable from the multifaceted picture of expatriate adjustment.
Various respondents indicated that how one dealt with expatriate status could affect his/her standing in the community. A modest and respectful approach in interaction with HCNs was seen as more appropriate than showing off. The noted 'expatriate bubble', in which expatriates separate themselves from the daily social environment, may not enhance improved intergroup relations and may be indicative for some of the host country nationals' perceptions of expatriates. Moving towards more collective identities may have important consequences for behaviour as it is a compromise between two opposing needs, the need for differentiation and the need for assimilation.
In organizations where the workforce was comprised of multiple nationalities participants observed that people 'stick to their own kind'. Other respondents seemed either not to be clear about the importance of interaction or separated work interaction from private interaction. Most interaction at the workplace seemed to take place between expatriates themselves. All expatriates had few local friends. Cases where expatriates had a higher number of local friends seemed related to the fact that these friends were spouses/husbands of expatriate colleagues.
Expatriates who exhibit ethnocentric traits may experience greater difficulty in social interactions at work. Because host country nationals and expatriates have to work with each other and because it is commonly believed that host country nationals are deviating from the norm, instead of the new incoming expatriate, it is important to show empathy and cultural sensitivity. Being inflexible and having expectations that things run in an identical way as in one's home country, were linked to unsuccessful adjustment by a number of participants. One CEO with over thirty years of experience in Asia noted that it had been the reason for replacement of company managers.
Well-adjusted expatriates showed behavioural changes and were also capable of articulating the background of these changes. On a personal level, findings showed consensus on the need for expatriates to adapt to a foreign country. Little adaptation apparently could be expected from the host country nationals. The inability to adapt behavior was found to be related to maladjustment and intentions to leave. Personal variables such as flexibility and tolerance for ambiguity are vital for the adjustment process of expatriates. This suggests that the selection process for expatriates may include assessment of these variables in order to avoid costly ineffective expatriate assignments.
In a nutshell, the results of this research provide sustained support for the notion that host country nationals play an important role in expatriate adjustment. More broadly, the observations emphasize that expatriate adjustment cannot be seen as a process that takes place in a vacuum. Contextual variables play a paramount role in expatriate adjustment and results of studies show that social perceptions are not absolutes, but can be altered. The inclusion of concepts from Social Identity Theories (e.g. Social Categorization Theory) into models of expatriate adjustment, therefore, seems appropriate. A practical agenda for improving the adjustment process of expatriates might well involve minimizing negative effects of social categorization processes while focusing on behaviour that supports a social identity which is shared with others at work.
Dr. Ben van den AnkerBhaskar-Shrinivas, P., Shaffer, M.A. and Luk, D.M. (2005). Input-based and time-based models of international adjustment: meta-analytic evidence and theoretical extensions. Academy of Management Journal, 48(2), 257-281
Grainger, R.J., Nankervis, A.R. (2001). Expatriation Practices in the Global Business Environment. Research and Practice in Human Resource Management, 9(2), 77-92.
Dr. Ben van den Anker received his PhD in Business and Management from the International Graduate School of Business of the University of South Australia. Dr. van den Anker hails from the Netherlands and has extensive experience living and working in SE Asia. His (I)HRM and cross-cultural consultancy assignments focus primarily on western-Asian contexts. He can be contacted at vandenanker@yahoo.com.
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